The  Miami  Bulletin 

Published  Monthly  by  Miami  UNj.vEliSj.TY 

And  Entered  at  Postoffice , Oxford , (ffiiof  ds  djtre'nd  Class  > 'tail  Matter. 


Series  VI. 


NOVEMBER,,  190?. 


Number  7 


EVOLUTION  OF  PUBLIC 
EDUCATION  IN 
OHIO 


CERTIFICATION 


QJHE  ihPJMY  f'~ 

r APR  21 1930 


university  of 


• c.  1 1 . J t o 


THE  MIAMI  UNIVERSITY 

OXFORD,  OHIO 


EVOLUTION  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION 
IN  OHIO. 


CERTIFICATION. 


Earliest  Indications.  Scarcely  had  the  passengers 
of  the  “Mayflower”  of  the  Ohio,  constructed  their  log  cab- 
ins, assembled  their  household  utensils,  set  fire  to  their  fresh 
brush  piles,  erected  their  family  altars,  when  Bathsheba 
Rouse  was  seen  going  from  cabin  to  cabin  soliciting  “sub- 
scription scholars”  for  the  summer  school  of  1789  to  be 
held  in  Belpre.  In  1791  the  Ohio  company  appropriated  one 
hundred  and  sixty  ($160)  dollars  for  the  instruction  of  the 
children  of  Marietta,  Belpre  and  Waterford.  Mayor  Austin 
Tupper  opened  the  Block  House  school  soon  after,  and  in  the 
same  year,  Riley  and  Dunlevy  opened  their  subscription 
school  in  Cincinnati. 

What  professional  preparation  these  forerunners  of  pub- 
lic education  in  the  commonwealth  had  made  is  not  chron- 
icled. Doubtless,  however,  they  had  been  approved  by  the 
ministers  of  their  respective  communities,  for  we  find  that 
the  ministers  became  the  first  examining  committees  in 
New  England. 

THE  TRIAD  OF  QUESTIONS. 

In  determining  who  shall  be  the  teachers  of  the  children 
of  a state,  three  questions  arise: 

(1)  What  is  the  field  of  efficiency  in  character,  knowl- 
edge and  skill? 

(2)  Who  shall  determine  when  this  efficiency  is  suffi- 
cient? 

(3)  How  may  the  State  secure  the  highest  and  most 
uniform  efficiency  with  strictest  economy? 

Efficiency  in  Character.  The  Germans  believe 
that  Religion  taught  in  the  schools  will  yield  the  moral  char- 


3 


acter  sufficient  in  all  duties  of  citizenship  and  public  office. 
A little  more  than  seven  per  cent  of  the  course  of  study  in 
the  gymnasium  and  fourteen  to  seventeen  per  cent  in  the 
volkschule  is  given  to  religious  instruction,  while  in  the 
Normal  Schools  we  find  ten  year-hours  out  of  a total  of 
sixty-nine  year-hours  given  to  the  study  of  Religion.  To 
the  German  mind  religious  instruction  is  certis  via  to  high 
public  morals. 

In  France  in  the  ecole  elementaire  about  ten  per  cent  of 
the  elementary  program  is  given  to  instruction  in  morals  and 
civics.  Text  books  on  morals  and  civics  are  used  in  all  of 
the  schools.  Such  instruction  is  considered,  by  the  French, 
the  method  best  adapted  to  develop  moral  life  in  the  French 
citizen. 

England  has  long  been  committed  to  formal  religious  in- 
struction. In  the  established  church  schools  it  has  always 
been  required,  and  the  school  master  was  subservient  to  the 
parish  rector— even  in  the  Board-schools  (1870-1902)  religious 
instruction  was  all  but  universal.  The  Training  Colleges  of 
England,  established  and  non-conformist,  show  how  deep- 
seated  is  the  belief  in  formal  religion  and  church  creed  in- 
struction as  a sine  qua  non  to  a moral  state.  England  differs 
from  Germany  in  her  excessive  amount  of  catechism  and 
doctrinal  instruction. 

America  has  departed  much  from  these.  She  has  rather 
adhered  to  the  philosophy  that  the  best  way  to  preach  a 
propaganda  is  to  live  it.  She  has  an  inalienable  faith  in 
the  potency  of  the  exemplary  lives  of  her  schoolmasters. 
Ohio  has  been  peculiarly  typical.  “Good  moral  character” 
has  been,  since  the  first  law  on  certification  in  1829,  the  ini- 
tial phrase  of  every  legislative  requirement  of  the  teacher. 
In  a few  city  school  systems  of  Ohio  a formal  course  of  study 
is  planned  in  morals  or  religion,  but  the  prevailing  practice 
is  the  discretionary  fifteen  minutes  opening  exercises.  It  is 
an  unobtrusive  period,  but  has  done  miracles  for  American 
manhood  and  womanhood. 

The  American  teacher  is  a moral  force  unequalled,  and  the 
Ohio  teachers  not  only  measure  to  the  full  statutory  require- 
ment, but  rise  far  above,  reaching  into  the  higher  region  of 


4 


piety  and  religious  faith.  The  writer  has  submitted  a list  of 
questions  at  some  of  the  teachers'  institutes  to  ascertain  the 
religious  status  of  Ohio's  teaching  corps.  The  following 
is  a typical  county : 


Questions 

No.  Answering 

Yes 

No 

Have  you  a Christian  belief? 

134 

0 

Do  you  teach  in  Sunday  School? 134 

Do  you  make  any  use  of  the  Bible  for 

56 

78 

your  own  spiritual  help? 

(a)  54  daily. 

(b)  27  weekly. 

(c)  47  occasionally. 

134 

128 

6 

Do  you  use  the  bible  in  school?. . 

134 

100 

34 

(a)  52  devotional  exercises. 

(b)  38  reading  at  opening  exercises. 

(c)  10  quotations. 


The  personal  morals  of  Americans  rank  higher  than  those 
of  any  other  civilized  people;  the  civic  morals  make  a fine 
average  compared  to  others;  the  commercial  morals— under- 
going repairs. 

It  is  believed  by  many  students  of  education  and  sociol- 
ogy that  regular  instruction  in  religion  and  morals  added  to 
the  high  personal  morality  of  the  teaching  staff  would  do 
much  to  elevate  the  American  civic  and  commercial  morals. 

Efficiency  in  Knowledge  and  SKill.  The  field 
of  knowledge  in  which  the  teachers  of  Ohio  are  to  be  efficient 
—the  end  is  not  yet.  From  the  days  of  Bathsheba  Rouse, 
1789  to  1829,  the  date  of  the  first  general  school  law,  forty 
years,  the  ‘'competency"  of  the  district  teacher  was  left  to 
the  judgment  of  a local  authority,  Township  Trustees  and 
District  School  Committees. 

The  Humble  ScHool  Arts.  In  1829  the  Assem- 
bly of  the  State  presented  the  Course  of  Study  for  the  Pub- 
lic Schools,  the  minimum  course,  reading , writing  and  arith- 
metic, and  declared  that  every  teacher  must  pass  an  examin- 
ation in  these  to  show  himself  qualified  to  teach.  These  three 
“humble  arts"  have  been  the  storm  center  of  every  discus- 
sion on  the  curriculum  of  the  elementary  school  to  the  pres- 


5 


ent  day.  The  only  growth  of  the  elementary  curriculum  for 
tfifty  years  was  exhibited  in  the  elaboration  of  the  Arithme- 
tics in  use. 

The  next  twenty  years  was  but  a part  of  the  cloud  of  the 
‘ 'Dark  Ages’ ’ for  the  public  schools,  still  hanging  over  the 
West.  In  1849,  Geography  and  Grammar  were  added  to  the 
triad,  marking  an  awakening  in  public  interest  which  cul- 
minated in  the  law  of  1853. 

This  law,  a memorial  to  the  public  spirit  and  energy  of 
Senator  Harvey  Rice,  of  Cuyahoga  county,  made  the  mini- 
mum elementary  school  curriculum,  orthography,  reading, 
writing,  arithmetic,  geography  and  English  grammar.  In 
1882,  History  of  the  United  States  was  added;  in  1889,  Physi- 
ology and  Hygiene;  in  1896,  Civil  Government  was  made 
a part  of  the  History  list,  and  in  1904  the  “ New  Code”  framed 
the  present  requirements. 

The  DarK  Age.  The  reign  of  the  “humble  arts” 
marks  the  period  of  arrested  development  in  public  school 
history.  The  only  educative  forces  at  work  were  those  of 
the  Academy  and  the  College.  The  public  school  was  to  be 
only  the  vorschule  of  Germany  or  the  dame  school  of  Eng- 
land; it  was  to  be  in  no  sense  an  entity,  but  a place  in  which 
pupils  might  learn  reading,  writing  and  rechnen , that  they 
might  be  able  to  enter  the  lower,  grades  of  the  Academy, 
the  preparatory  school  for  College.  Forty  to  fifty  Academies 
and  eighteen  Colleges  * were  educating  the  youth  of  Ohio  in 
all  branches  save  the  humble  arts. 

* NOTE. 

Ohio  University  founded  1804,  non-sectarian. 

Miami  University  , founded  1809,  non-sectarian  (controlled  by  Pres- 
byterians.) 

Western  Reserve,  founded  1823,  non-sectarian,  (controlled  by  Con- 
gregationalists. ) 

Kenyon,  founded  1824,  Protestant  Episcopal. 

Franklin,  founded  1825,  Presbyterian. 

Lane  Theological  Seminary,  founded  1829,  Presbyterian. 

Dennison,  founded  1831,  Baptist. 

Oberlin,  founded  1833,  Congregationalist. 

Marietta,  founded  1835,  non-sectarian,  (controlled  by  Congregation- 

alists.) 

Muskingum,  founded  1837,  United  Presbyterian. 

6 


Ohio  Wesleyan,  founded  1844,  Methodist. 

Wittenberg,  founded  1845,  Lutheran. 

Mount  Union,  founded  1846,  Methodist. 

Otterbein,  founded  1847,  United  Brethren. 

Hiram,  founded  1850,  Disciples. 

Heidelberg,  founded  1850,  Reformed. 

Urbana,  founded  1850,  New  Jerusalem. 

Antioch,  founded  1852,  Christian. 

Henry  Barnard,  of  Rhode  Island,  Horace  Mann, of  Massa- 
chusetts, and  David  Page,  of  New  York,  inaugurated  the 
rennaissance  in  the  Public  Schools,  and  the  influence  of  Henry 
Pestalozzi,  who  died  in  1824,  was  becoming  at  the  same 
time  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic  a real  force.  The  cities,  too, 
in  Ohio  were  enriching  their  courses  of  study,  that  the  whole 
child  might  be  awakened.  In  Cincinnati  public  schools  in 
1849,  a male  principal  was  required  to  pass  examination  in 
spelling  and  definition,  reading,  writing,  English  grammar, 
including  composition,  geography,  United  States  history, 
mental  arithmetic,  written  arithmetic,  natural  history, 
elements  of  natural  philosophy,  American  history,  elements 
of  algebra,  constitution  of  the  United  States,  constitution  of 
Ohio,  elements  of  geometry,  mensuration  and  surveying. 

The  Rennaissance  in  Public  School  Work 
in  Ohio.  There  were  many  factors  contributing  to  the 
school  law  of  1853.  A new  constitution  was  adopted  by  the 
state  in  1851.  The  Akron  law,  organizing  all  of  the  separate 
districts  of  the  city  into  one  district  under  control  of  one 
Board  of  Education,  had  been  enacted  by  the  forty-sixth 
General  Assembly;  the  Ohio  State  Teachers'  Association  was 
organized  in  1847;  in  1845  ounty  Teachers'  Institutes  were 
inaugurated  in  Sandusky,  by  Salem  Town,  of  New  York,  M. 
F.  Cowdry  and  A.  D.  Lord,  of  the  Teachers'  Seminary  at 
Kirtland,  which  had  been  running  since  1837;  the  “Ohio  Ed- 
ucational Journal,"  now  the  “Ohio  Educational  Monthly," 
was  begun  in  1852 ; good  text  books  were  being  published  in 
Cincinnati,  McGuffey's  readers  and  Ray's  arithmetics,  and 
were  becoming  available  for  all  schools ; reaction  had  set  in 
from  the  educational  pathology  of  1840,  when  Samuel 
Lewis  resigned  from  the  State  Superintendency;  Horace 
Mann  had  come  to  Ohio  and  had  begun  an  educational  cam- 


7 


paign  for  Public  Schools  through  his  addresses,  and  articles 
in  the  Ohio  Educational  Journal;  and  Samuel  Galloway,  first 
president  of  the  Ohio  State  Teachers'  Association,  issued  in 
1845,  a valuable  report  on  the  Public  School  condition.  All 
these  forces  and  many  more  brought  the  status  of  the 
schools  to  the  high  level  of  1853.  Under  Commissioner  De- 
Wolf,  1882,  United  States  History  was  added  to  the  list  of 
common  branches;  under  Commissioner  Tappan,  1888,  Physi- 
ology; and  under  Commissoner  Corson,  1896,  Civil  Govern- 
ment was  made  a part  of  United  States  History.  In  the  most 
aggressive  legislation  which  characterized  the  energetic  and 
efficient  administrations  of  Commissioners  Corson  and  Bone- 
brake,  scholarship  requirements  of  the  teacher  were  also 
effected;  in  the  former  the  eight  years'  certificate,  open- 
ing the  way  for  the  High  School  certificate,  by  adding  four 
High  School  branches  to  the  common  branches,  and  in  the 
latter  a separation  of  the  Elementary  and  High  School  re- 
quirements. 

The  New  Code.  The  unconstitutionality  of  “rip- 
per" and  special  legislation  necessitated  a complete  recon- 
struction of  all  the  laws  of  the  State.  A special  legislature, 
under  Gov.  Nash,  was  called  to  construct  the  New  Munici- 
pal Code,  and  the  school  code  became  the  center  of  the  leg- 
islative storm  in  the  seventy-sixth  Assembly.  The  size  of 
Boards  of  Education,  manner  of  their  election,  powers  and 
duties  of  Boards  and  superintendents,  formed  the  cyclonic 
apex  of  the  storm,  and  the  scholastic  requirements  of  the 
teacher  were  not  widely  discussed;  a few  committee  meet- 
ings, some  conferences  among  the  leading  school  superin- 
tendents, college  presidents  and  normal  school  deans,  con- 
cluded the  matter. 

We  find  the  new  code  of  requirements  for  the  elemen- 
tary teachers'  certificate  in  Ohio  to  compare  with  other 
countries  as  follows: 

OHio. 

Orthography. 

Reading— easy  selections  of  prose  and  poetry. 

Writing. 


8 


Arithmetic — Fundamental  rules ; fractions;  denominate 
numbers;  percentage;  mensuration. 
English  Grammar  and  Composition. 

Geography. 

History,  including  Civil  Government. 

Physiology  and  Narcotics. 

Literature. 

Theory  and  Practice. 


ILngland.  (Code  of  1906). 

English  Language,  Literature  and  Composition.  (The 
literature  is  equivalent  to  a good  High  School  course  in 
Ohio).  Besides  formal  grammar,  one  outline  course  on  the 
structure  and  history  of  the  language. 

Elementary  Mathematics,  Algebra,  Geometry. 

Elementary  Science— Chemistry,  Physics,  Natural  His- 
tory and  Rural  Science. 

History  and  Geography— History  of  Greece  and  Rome  or 
Phases  of  English  History,  (arranged  by  the  general  Board 
of  Education.)  This  geography  is  a part  of  the  history,  not 
studied  as  a science. 

Drawing— Blackboard,  memory,  perspective— Ornamen- 
tal design. 

Singing  and  the  Theory  of  Music. 

Needlework  (for  women  only.) 

Principles  of  Teaching — Elementary  Psychology,  Ele- 
ments of  Logic,  School  Organization,  Methods  of  Teaching 
the  Subjects,  Movements  in  Education  (typical  examination). 

Reading  and  Repetition— Reading  aloud— quoting  200 
lines  from  some  standard  author. 


Germany. 

Religion. 

Reading. 

Writing. 

Grammar. 

Rhetoric. 

Practical  Teaching 


Geography. 

Drawing. 

Gymnastics. 

One  foreign  language. 
Literature. 

(illustrated  by  giving  lessons  in 


presence  of  examiner  according  to  a plan  previously  sub- 
mitted. This  is  on  some  pedagogical  subject.) 


9 


Pedagogics— History  of  Education;  Psychology. 

History— General,  German. 

Elementary  Mathematics— Arithmetic,  Algebra,  Ge- 
ometry. 

Science — Botany,  Zoology,  Physics,  Geology,  Chemistry, 
Physiology. 

France.  The  examination  is  composed  of  two  parts, 
written  and  oral : 

I.  (1)  A paper  composed  of  two  questions;  the  first 
on  arithmetic  (including,  for  the  boys  only,  geometry  in  its 
practical  applications) ; the  second  on  physics  and  natural 
science,  with  their  common  application  to  hygiene,  industry, 
agriculture  and  horticulture  (four  hours  for  the  two  parts) . 

(2)  French  composition  on  a subject  from  literature 
and  ethics  (three  hours). 

(3)  Drawing  from  a model  in  relief  (three  hours). 

(4)  Modern  languages  (English,  German,  Spanish,  or 
Italian) ; written  questions  based  upon  the  modern  language 
programs  of  the  Normal  Schools;  written  replies  also  in  the 
foreign  language;  use  of  the  dictionary  allowed  (two  hours). 

I.  Oral  questions  on 

(a)  Psychology,  ethics  and  their  applications  to  edu- 
cation. 

(b)  The  essential  facts  of  French  history  and  its  rela- 
tions with  general  history  since  1492. 

(c)  Geography  of  France,  with  map  drawing  on  the 
blackboard,  together  with  the  facts  of  general  geography. 

(d)  Arithmetic,  oral  and  written,  with  algebra  and 
geometry  for  the  boys. 

(e)  Physics,  chemistry  and  natural  history,  with  their 
applications. 

II.  Reading  and  explanation  of  a selection  in  French 
taken  from  a list  of  authors  drawn  up  every  three  years  by 
the  Minister.  Fifteen  minutes  are  allowed  for  preparation. 
Grammatical  questions. 

III.  Reading  aloud  and  rapid  translation,  after  a quar- 
ter of  an  hour  for  preparation,  of  an  easy  selection  from  a 
modern  language.  Simple  conversation  in  the  foreign 
language  on  the  text  read. 


IO 


IV.  Drawing  from  a model  in  relief  (three  hours). 

V.  Examination  in  music:  musical  dictation,  followed  by 
simple  theoretical  questions  on  the  text  dictated. 

The  above  is  the  examination  given  for  the  Brevet  Sup- 
erieur  or  Higher  Diploma.  This  certificate  is  held  by  67  per 
cent  of  the  men  and  68  per  cent  of  the  women. 

It  is  the  scholastic  test  to  be  given  at  the  end  of  the 
second  year  in  the  Normal  Schools.  The  third  and  last  year 
of  the  Normal  School  devotes  less  of  the  time  to  academic 
work  and  more  to  professional  studies,  preparatory  to  the  ex- 
amination for  the  Certificat  d’ Aptitude  Pedagogique,  or  pro- 
fessional certificate,  admitting  the  holder  to  appointment  as 
titulaire— full  teacher. 

The  low  standard  in  Ohio  is  not  changed  for  the  differ- 
ent grades  of  local  elementary  certificates.  The  same  list  of 
subjects  and  the  same  list  of  questions  are  submitted  for 
one-year  (the  lowest  certificate)  as  are  submitted  for  a 
five-year  (a  renewable  and  therefore  a probable  permanent 
certificate) . Many  other  states  of  America  add  higher  sub- 
jects for  the  better  class  of  certificates: 

For  a first  grade  local  certificate,  23  states  add  Algebra; 
16  states  add  Physics;!  11  states  add  Geometry;  10  states 
add  Physical  Geography;  9 states  add  Literature;  3 states 
add  Rhetoric;  4 states  add  General  History. 

The  Local  HigH  ScHool  Certificate.  The  most 
striking  addition  to  the  Certification  Laws  in  the  New  Code 
is  the  local  High  School  certificate.  As  early  as  1853  we  find 
a law  providing  for  examinations  in  subjects  to  be  taught  in 
“common  schools  of  higher  grade,”  a forerunner  of  the  local 
high  school  certificate  of  the  new  code. 

Five  states  of  the  Union  provide  a local  high  school  cer- 
tificate. 

The  Brumbaugh  law,  defining  and  classifying  high 
schools,  made  a definite  line  of  cleavage  between  elementary 
school  and  high  school. 

Prior  to  the  Brumbaugh  law,  many  of  the  high  schools 
were  simply  elementary  schools  continued  into  a few  high 
school  subjects— a kind  of  stretched-up  elementary  school. 
The  teacher  was  also  a stretched-up  elementary  teacher.  He 


ii 


held  an  elementary  certificate  with  a few  high  school  sub- 
jects added  which  he  desired  to  teach,  or  which  some  one 
else  desired  to  have  taught. 

The  “blanket”  feature  of  the  high  school  certificate  is 
quite  repugnant  to  previous  legislation,  in  that  the  holder  of  a 
High  School  certificate  may  teach  subjects  in  which  he  has 
never  been  examined  by  the  state.  A teacher  of  Latin  may 
or  may  not  have  been  examined  in  that  branch.  Since  the 
law  of  1853  in  which  qualifications  were  certified  to  by 
branch,  “ that  he  or  she  is  qualified  to  teach  orthography, 
reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  geography,  English  grammar; 
and  in  case  such  person  intends  to  teach  in  any  common 
school  of  higher  grade,  he  or  she  shall  first  obtain  a certifi- 
cate of  requisite  qualifications  in  addition  to  the  branches 
aforesaid,  it  has  been  the  practice  of  Boards  to  examine  di- 
rectly with  reference  to  the  branches  to  be  taught  by  the 
candidate,  and  to  certify  thereto  accordingly  and  not  to  his 
or  her  qualifications  in  general.”  This  law  should  be  supple- 
mented by  the  clause,  “no  person  shall  teach  any  subject  for 
which  he  has  not  been  certificated.”  The  “blanket”  certi- 
ficate is  one  that  cannot  meet  with  wide  respect,  less  respect 
when  the  blanket  is  small. 

Another  all  but  unprecedented  feature  of  the  local  High 
School  certificate  is  the  omission  of  all  elementary  school  sub- 
jects. Doubtless,  many  sins  have  been  committed  against 
the  applicant  for  high  school  certificate  in  the  name  of  the 
elementary  school  branches,  yet,  more  will  be  committed 
against  the  schools  by  such  greivous  entire  omissions 
as  United  States  History  including  Civil  Government, 
Geography,  Grammar  or  Rhetoric,  and  some  elementary 
Mathematics  besides  Algebra. 

There  is  a strong  sentiment  in  the  states  that  greater 
effort  should  be  made  to  accept  college  preparation,  rather 
than  results  of  limited  examinations.  Mr.  Cubberly  in  the 
Fifth  Year  book  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Scientific 
Study  of  Education,  says  that  the  stages  of  development  in 
certification  for  secondary  schools  are,  1,  local  certificates, 
2,  state  certificates  and  3,  recognition  of  college  preparation. 

The  requirements  for  certificates  issued  by  the  State 


12 


Board  of  School  Examiners  are  not  a subject  of  statute  but 
are  instituted  by  the  Board.  The  state  certificate  from  Ohio 
takes  high  rank  among  state  certificates,  and  its  standing 
has  been  guarded  well  by  the  “non-complimentary  practice.  ” 

Efficiency  in  SKill.  The  successful  experience  and 
professional  efficiency  of  the  teaching  staff  of  the  state  have 
always  been  tested  by  questions  on  “Theory  and  Practice,” 
a phrase  widely  diffused  by  David  Page’s  book,  and  the 
scanty  knowledge  of  the  examiners  might  obtain  concerning 
the  teaching  life  of  the  candidate  through  personal  acquain- 
tance, or  hearsay,  or  written  testimonials. 

The  Second  Question.  By  whom  and  how  the 
efficiency  shall  be  validated,  presents  a considerable  genesis, 
an  anomalous  practice,  a serious  problem. 

That  some  one  supposed  capable  should  approve  the 
teacher’s  qualification  is  coeval  with  the  endeavor  to  bring 
free  education  to  all.  In  Massachusetts  we  find,  (June  20, 
1701),  “Therefore,  it  is  enacted  and  declared  by  the  Lieuten- 
ant Governor,  Council  and  Representatives  in  the  General 
Court  that  every  grammar  schoolmaster  to  be  approved  by 
the  minister  of  the  town  and  the  ministers  of  the  two  next 
adjacent  towns,  or  any  two  of  them,  by  certificate  under  their 
hands.” 

(A  little  later.)  “That  no  person  shall  or  may  presume 
to  set  up  or  keep  a school  for  the  teaching  and  instructing  of 
children  or  youth  in  reading,  writing  or  any  other  science, 
but  such  as  are  of  sober  and  good  conversation,  and  have  the 
allowance  and  approbation  of  the  selectmen  of  the  town  in 
which  any  such  school  is  to  be  kept.” 

In  New  York,  in  1663,  December  20,  the  town  of  Bush- 
week,  New  York  (New  Netherlands)  asks  the  Director  Gener- 
al and  Council  to  approve  their  appointment  of  Boudewyn 
Maenhout,  “that  he  should  officiate  as  clerk  and  keep- 
school”, (400  florins  in  seawant  annually  besides  house  rent.) 
The  Director  General  and  Council  approved  the  same,  “pro- 
vided that  he  shall  previously  be  examined  by  the  Rev.  Min- 
isters of  this  city,  (New  Amsterdam).” 

October  12,  1665,  The  Governor  (English  now)  licensed 


13 


John  Shulte  “for  teaching  of  the  English  tongue  at  Albany. ” 
For  some  years  the  Governor  did  all  the  licensing. 

In  1686,  the  Governor  recommended  that1 'no  schoolmas- 
ter be  henceforth  to  come  from  England  and  to  keep  school 
within  the  province  of  New  York  without  license  of  the 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury.” 

In  Virginia  the  parish  minister  examined  the  school- 
masters; in  North  Carolina  the  teacher  must  belong  (in  1770) 
to  the  established  church  and  be  "duly  licensed  to  the  Gov- 
ernor.” Our  early  national  period  followed  these  Colonial 
practices. 

In  Ohio,  the  earliest  examinations  were  by  the  trustees 
and  school  committee,  but  in  1825,  the  Common  Pleas  Court 
appointed  three  examiners  each  to  serve  for  one  year. 

1829,  the  Clerk  of  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas  was  au- 
thorized to  appoint  not  fewer  than  five  nor  more  than  the 
number  of  townships  in  the  county,  each  examiner  to  serve 
for  two  years. 

1830,  the  Common  Pleas  Court  resumed  the  appointment 
under  same  provisions  as  the  law  of  1829. 

1834,  the  number  of  county  examiners  was  limited  to 
five.  This  County  Board  of  Examiners  must  appoint  one  ex- 
aminer in  each  township  for  accomodation  of  female  appli- 
cants. 

1836,  three  examiners  were  elected  in  each  township. 

1838,  three  examiners  were  appointed  by  Common  Pleas 
Court  to  serve  for  three  years. 

1853,  three  examiners  were  appointed  by  the  Probate 
Court  to  serve  for  two  years. 

"As  evidence  that  Ohio  school  men  believe  that  a higher 
standard  of  scholarship  should  be  required  for  admission  to 
the  examination,  an  inquiry  was  sent  to  the  local  school  ex- 
aminers, city  and  country.  In  response  to  the  question, 
‘Should  Ohio  require  that  all  applicants  for  elementary  cer- 
tificates shall  be  graduates  of  at  least  third  grade  high 
schools?’  of  the  forty-four  county  school  examining  boards 
replying  to  this  question,  thirty-six  replied  in  the  affirma- 
tive; four  of  these  affirmative  replies  were  conditioned  by 
stating  that  this  requirement  should  be  approached  gradual- 


14 


ly,  and  that  it  should  not  apply  to  teachers  already  in  the 
profession,  and  other  similar  conditions.  Of  the  fifty-seven 
city  boards  replying,  fifty-three  replied  in  the  affirmative; 
six  of  these  were  conditioned  somewhat,  as  the  conditions 
mentioned  by  the  county  boards.  In  the  same  questionnaire, 
inquiry  was  made  as  to  what  per  cent  of  the  applicants  are 
graduates  of  the  high  schools.  The  average  in  the  forty- 
seven  counties  was  thirty- six  per  cent,  many  stating  that  the 
average  among  the  younger  teachers'  corps  was  much 
higher,  but  the  older  teachers  had  not  had  high  school  prep- 
aration. The  average  from  the  fifty-seven  cities  was  eighty- 
one  per  cent.” 

Who  Shall  Examine.  In  Germany  (Prussia)  - The 
Professors  of  the  Normal  Schools  under  inspection  of 

(1)  The  district  school  inspectors. 

(2)  A commission  from  the  school  collegium,  the  Pro- 
vincial School  Board.  (This  is  a professional  body,  composed 
of  three  to  five  inspectors  appointed  by  the  royal  minister. 
This  Board  is  made  up  of  university  graduates.) 

England -Certification  is  all  under  the  control  of  the 
Board  of  Education.  This  is  a general  board  for  England  and 
Wales.  Its  president  is  a cabinet  officer.  Certificates  may 
be  obtained— 

(1)  By  taking  the  written  examination  of  the  Board  of 
Education. 

(2)  The  Board  of  Education  may  accept  the  normal 
school  graduation  without  examination,  further  than  an  in- 
spection of  the  candidate's  work  in  the  training  school  as  ex- 
hibited in  his  note  book. 

(3)  An  examination  may  be  given  by  a joint  examining 
body  composed  of  training  college  professors,  and  appointees 
of  the  President  of  the  Board  of  Education ; not  more  than 
half  of  the  Board  shall  be  from  the  training  college.  (Ex- 
aminations are  taken  at  the  training  college) . 

(4)  The  Board  of  Education  may  accept  certain  univer- 
sity examinations. 

France— 

(1)  A primary  local  inspector.  The  inspector  is  ap- 


15 


pointed  by  the  minister,  after  passing  successfully  a com- 
petitive examination,  the  most  severe  test  held  in  connec- 
tion with  the  elementary  schools. 

(2)  Director  or  directress  of  a department  state  nor- 
mal school. 

(3)  Two  regular  teachers  in  the  normal  school  or  high- 
er primary  school  (one  representing  the  arts,  the  other  the 
sciences,  and  a public  school  teacher  who  holds  the  higher 
diploma.) 

(4)  Three  ministers  appointed  from  past  and  present 
representatives  of  primary,  secondary  or  higher  education. 

(5)  The  academy  inspector  presides  over  the  examina- 
tion and  the  rector  of  the  Academy  appoints  the  commis- 
ison.  (The  academy  is  one  of  the  seventeen  educational  dis- 
tricts into  which  France  is  divided.  The  rector  is  the  head 
of  all  the  educational  interests  of  the  academy).  It  will  be 
observed  that  all  the  examination  commissions  and  boards 
above  mentioned  are  professional,  with  high  scholastic  re- 
quirements. 

No  qualification  had  been  required  for  the  exam- 
iner in  Ohio  until  the  code  of  1904,  in  which  it  is  required 
for  all  local  boards  that,  4 'at  least  two  of  the  examiners  shall 
have  had  at  least  two  years’  experience  in  teaching  or  super- 
intending schools,”  and  in  county  boards,  “shall  have  been 
teachers  within  five  years.”  In  both  city  and  county  the 
member  must  reside  in  the  district  for  which  he  is  appoint- 
ed. 

It  is  just  that  representatives  of  the  elementary  schools 
should  sit  upon  the  examining  boards.  The  Board,  how- 
ever, should  not  be  entirely  composed  of  elementary  teach- 
ers, and  all  should  be  of  high  scholastic  attainments. 

Form  of  tHe  Examination.  In  Germany  and 
France*  the  oral  examination  forms  no  small  part  of  the  ex- 
amination of  teachers. 

In  the  early  history  of  Ohio,  examinations  were  oral. 
The  examiner  met  the  candidates  at  his  home,  or  wherever 
most  convenient  to  the  examiner,  and  gave  his  oral  test. 

When  the  law  of  1838  went  into  effect,  much  discussion 
arose  as  to  the  form  of  the  examination.  Some  Boards  adopt- 

16 


ed  and  published  rules.  Among  the  most  widely  imitated 
rules  were  those  adopted  by  the  Cuyahoga  Board : 

(1)  Candidates  will  be  expected  to  pass  a thorough  examination  in 
spelling,  and  in  the  rudiments  of  the  English  language,  as  contained  in  the 
ordinary  spelling  books. 

(2)  They  will  be  required  to  write  a fair  hand,  both  coarse  and  fine. 

(3)  They  must  be  good  readers,  both  in  prose  and  poetry. 

(4)  No  female  teacher  will  be  entitled  to  a certificate,  who  does  not 
give  evidence  of  a thorough  acquaintance  with  the  fundamental  rules  of 
arithmetic,  compound  numbers,  vulgar  and  decimal  fractions,  interest  and 
the  rule  of  three;  and  no  male  teacher  who  does  not  possess  a thorough 
knowledge  of  the  whole  arithmetic. 

(5)  Those  who  are  examined  in  other  studies,  such  as  geography, 
grammar,  philosophy,  etc.,  will  not  be  allowed  a certificate  to  teach  them, 
unless  they  make  it  evident  that  they  are  well  qualified  to  instruct  in  these 
respective  branches. 

(6)  Candidates  for  certificates  will  be  expected  to  furnish  evidenca  to 
the  Board  of  good  moral  character. 

(7)  In  cases  where  the  candidate,  though  deficient  in  qualifications, 
gives  evidence  of  ability  to  teach  a particular  school  the  Board  may,  at  its 
discretion,  give  a certificate  to  teach  that  school  for  six  months  only;  but 
in  no  case  shall  a certificate  of  this  kind  be  given  the  second  time  to  the 
same  individual. 

Much  objection  was  made  to  the  substitution  of  an  en- 
tire written  examination  for  the  oral  examination  as  is 
shown  by  a contribution  to  the  Ohio  Journal  of  Education  in 
June,  1857,  which  gives  the  negative  side  of  the  argument 
used  in  the  debate  for  and  against  the  transition:  The 
writer  who  signs  his  name  “H.  H.”  says: 

<;It  seems  to  me  that  the  following  objections  are  conclusive  as  to  the 
use  of  prepared  questions: 

(1)  There  is  no  means  of  testing  the  actual  knowledge  displayed  in 
the  answers,  without  subsequent  questions  on  those  answers.  In  a set  of 
prepared  questions  no  such  test  can  be  properly  applied. 

(2)  The  prepared  questions  must  be  isolated  questions,  each  one  inde- 
pendent of  the  other,  or  when  all  are  presented  on  a sheet  they  will,  the 
one  aid  in  the  solution  of  the  other. 

(3)  By  this  mode,  without  the  test  of  questions  based  upon  and  de- 
manding explanation  of  answers  given,  it  is  not  possible  to  ascertain  the 
comparative  merits  of  the  applicants.  One  person  may  answer  glibly  with 
the  pen,  and  be  apparently  correct,  and  another  answer  badly  and  at  the 
same  time,  the  latter  be  much  the  best  scholar. 

(4)  This  mode  destroys  all  the  general  benefit  which  might  and 
should  result  from  the  public  examination  of  teachers. 

Other  points  of  objection  might  be  enumerated,  but  these  are  sufficieut 


17 


for  my  present  purpose,  which  is  simply  to  attract  attention  to  the  matter. 
Oral  and  impromptu  questions  commend  themselves  to  me  by  the  follow- 
ing, among  other  considerations; 

(1)  They  are  asked  and  answered  within  the  hearing  of  the  whole 
class,  and  are  much  more  varied  than  prepared  questions  can  be.  The 
public  and  general  benefit  of  examinations  is  thus  secured. 

(2)  They  furnish  full  opportunity  to  test  all  previous  answers  at 
every  step,  and  thus  to  ascertain  whether  the  knowledge  displayed  be 
actual  and  real,  and  not  a mere  school  book  echo. 

(3)  They  are  much  more  likely  to  lead  to  knowledge  of  the  compara- 
tive merits  of  the  different  applicants  for  certificates.” 

The  question  is  often  raised  shall  the  staff  who  prepared 
the  teacher  for  the  state  have  any  part  in  the  examination 
which  determines  his  fitness  to  enter  the  profession.  The 
three  countries  referred  to  as  types  have  all  given  the  pro- 
fessors of  training  colleges  much  to  say  in  the  final  examina- 
tion of  of  trained  teachers,  but  in  no  instance  does  the  train- 
ing staff  alone  certificate.  In  America  it  is  the  common 
practice  that  graduates  from  normal  schools  are  given  either 
provisional  or  life  certificates.  It  is  essential  to  keep  a high 
standard  of  requirement,  that  the  theoretical  as  well  as  the 
practical  be  represented,  in  all  examining  boards  and  com- 
missions. Every  good  training  school  is  in  touch  with  the 
best  that  there  is  in  educational  thought  and  practice  in  all 
parts  of  the  progressive  world,  and  trained  teachers  should 
bring  into  the  schools  every  feature  of  school  improvement. 

Increased  State  Supervision.  We  have  noticed 
that  in  Germany,  France  and  England  there  is  no  such  cer- 
tificate as  a local  certificate  good  for  a small  territory,  as  a 
city  or  county.  This  local  system  is  the  continuation  of 
what  was  begun  in  necessity  and  is  not  fully  adapted  to  our 
modern  standards.  There  is  now  a very  strong  sentiment 
in  many  states  for  complete  state  control  in  certification.  In 
every  state,  state  boards  of  education  and  state  boards  of 
examiners  are  increasing  their  facilities  to  meet  the  educa- 
tional situation. 

Ohio  has  moved  as  far  as  the  uniform  question  lists. 
The  Schurr  bill  provided  for  examination  under  members  of 
the  state  board  of  school  examiners  at  the  state  training 
schools,  and  those  schools  reaching  state  standards,  both  for 

18 


the  elementary  teacher  and  the  secondary  teacher.  If  added 
power  could  be  given  to  the  State  School  Commissioner  and 
the  state  board  of  school  examiners  to  provide  for  the  read- 
ing of  manuscripts  or  holding  of  sectional  examinations,  the 
status  of  the  profession  would  be  much  improved. 

The  state  examinations  have  thus  far  appealed  only  to 
the  superintendent  and  principal.  A great  uplift  would  be 
effected  if  state  recognition  were  possible  for  the  great  ele- 
mentary teaching  force. 

The  Limit  in  Space  and  Time.  This  adds  an- 
other humiliation  to  the  calling  of  teachers.  The  first 
offense  committed  against  the  dignity  of  teaching  is  ex- 
perienced by  a candidate  entering  the  profession  when 
he  is  told  that  his  qualification  is  good  only  for  a limited 
number  of  square  miles  or  a limited  population;  outside  this 
county  or  beyond  this  municipality  boundary  his  credentials 
are  invalid.  The  second  withering  stroke  against  the  dig- 
nity of  the  calling  is  revealed  when  the  candidate  is  told  he 
is  qualified  now  but  in  six  months  or  a year  he  may  not  be. 
The  court  may  reverse  its  judgment  in  a year,  or  a new  court 
may  sit  in  judgment  next  time.  Looked  at  from  the  side  of 
a high-minded  examining  board  it  is  not  less  dissipating  to 
all  faith  in  a high  and  noble  calling.  The  Board  says,  “he  is 
inefficient,”  but  he  can  practice  only  a year.  He  cannot  do 
much  harm  in  a year.  The  word  license  here  seems  applic- 
able, inasmuch  as  we  license  persons  to  do  things  they  ought 
not  to  do. 

Once  a graduate,  Master  of  Arts,  from  Harvard  Univer- 
sity, came  fresh  from  his  college  halls  to  occupy  a position 
under  the  writer.  A member  of  the  local  examining  board 
insisted  that  this  young  man  take  his  examination  with 
others.  The  candidate  submitted  his  college  records,  and 
honor  grades,  but  the  member  of  the  board,  without  even  a 
local  high  school  education,  insisted  that  the  candidate 
“pass”  with  the  rest.  He  passed,  but  the  member  thought  it 
would  be  unjust  to  local  applicants  to  give  him  more  than  a 


year  certificate.  * The  Schurr  bill  was  professional  enough 
in  spirit  to  remove  the  limit  in  time  and  provided  for  larger 
state  recognition. To  limit  the  teacher  in  time  and  space 
gives  littleness  to  the  calling  and  attracts  only  little  minds. 

There  can  be  no  'professional  certificate  or  recognition 
that  suffers  the  time  limit.  This  is  demonstrated,  since 
certifying  to  a teacher’s  qualifications  with  a time  limit  is  so 
far  as  the  writer  knows  indigenous  to  America.  In  Ohio 
prior  to  1838  the  examiners  determined  the  time  limit.  The 
duration  of  the  certificate  was  determined  by  the  work  of  the 
candidate,  and  the  exigence  of  the  case.  Three  months,  then 
six  months,  then  nine,  and  finally  he  was  entrusted  for  a 
year.  In  1838,  the  certificate  was  to  be  valid  not  longer  than 
two  years  and  this  provision  continued  in  force  for  nearly  a 
half  century. 

In  1884,  the  examining  bodies  were  authorized  to  issue 
certificates  for  one  two,  three,  four  and  five  years,  and  in 
1898  the  eight  year  certificate  was  authorized. 

The  practice  of  Ohio  regarding  the  limit  has  been  the 
common  practice  among  the  states  in  granting  local  certifi- 
cates. 

The  ten  year  certificate  of  New  York  is  the  longest  dur- 
ation for  which  local  time-limit  certificate  is  valid.  Ohio  has 
an  eight  year  local  certificate,  Texas  and  California  a six 
year.  One,  two,  three,  four  and  five  years  are  the  common 
life  of  the  local  certificate.  Many  states  have  a lower  max- 
imum than  five  years. 

State  Certificates.  The  State  Board  of  School  Exami- 
ners was  organized  in  1864,  with  three  members  and  issued 
at  first  only  life  certificates  of  one  grade;  but  from  1881  to 
1888  two  grades  of  certificates  were  issued,  a ten  year  com- 
mon school  certificate  and  a life  certificate. 

Since  1888,  three  life  certificates  have  been  issued,  high 
school  life,  common  school  life  and  special  life. 


* NOTE A bill  for  the  certification  of  teachers  was  introduced  into 

the  House  at  the  first  session  of  the  seventy-seventh  General  Assembly. 
The  sponsor  of  the  bill  is  the  Hon.  D.  J.  Schurr,  of  Madison  county,  a for- 
mer successful  school  superintendent. 


20 


There  is  a sentiment  in  the  state  in  favor  of  issuing  noth- 
ing but  professional  certificates,  that  is,  without  the  time 
limit.  This  has  contributed  much  to  the  dignity  and  desir- 
ability of  such  professional  recognition. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  IMPROVEMENT. 

I.  Local  certificates,  county  and  municipal. 

(1)  Elementary  Provisional.  Issued, 

(a)  Upon  examinations  in  the  common  branches  and 
the  principles  and  methods  of  teaching. 

(b)  With  the  time  limit,  one,  two,  or  three  years. 

(c)  A limited  number  of  times,  aggregate  not  more 
than  six  years. 

(2)  Elementary  Professional.  Issued,  after  successful 
experience,  with  a more  thorough  examination  upon  the 
principles  and  practice  of  teaching. 

(a)  Upon  examinations  in  common  branches  and  the 
following  additional  branches  as  treated  in  secondary 
schools:  Algebra,  General  History,  Literature,  Physics  and 
three  optional  High  School  subjects. 

(b)  Exemption  from  further  examination  in  common 
branches  if  candidate  has  obtained  satisfactory  grades  in 
previous  examination  for  provisional  certificate;  exemption 
from  High  School  branches  where  candidate  presents 
diploma  from  second  grade  high  school  of  state. 

(c)  Without  time  limit. 

(3)  High  School  Provisional.  Issued, 

(a)  Upon  examination  in  United  States  history  includ- 
ing civil  government,  arithmetic,  English  grammar,  geog- 
raphy, literature,  algebra,  geometry,  general  history, 
physics,  principles  and  history  of  education  and  four  sub- 
jects chosen  from  the  following:  Latin,  German,  rhetoric, 
trigonometry,  botany,  chemistry,  geology,  political  economy, 
sociology,  physical  geography. 

(b)  With  the  limit  of  one,  two  or  three  years. 

(c)  A limited  number  of  times. 

4.  High  school  professional.  Issued  after  successful 
experience. 

(a)  Upon  examination  as  high  school  provisional,  with 


21 


more  thorough  examination  upon  the  principles  and  practice 
of  teaching,  school  organization  and  school  law. 

(b)  Exemption  from  re-examination  in  branches  men- 
tioned in  (a),  except  the  professional  branches,  where  can- 
didate had  achieved  satisfactory  grades  in  previous  examina- 
tion, or  where  candidate  presents  credentials  in  said  branch- 
es from  a college  of  recognized  standard. 

(c)  Without  limit. 

(5)  Special  certificates. 

I.  Provisional.  Issued, 

(a)  Upon  examination  in  special  branch  or  branches, 
hygiene  and  temperance  instruction,  principles  of  education. 

(b)  Same  as  elementary  and  high  school. 

(c)  Same  as  elementary  and  high  school. 

II.  Professional.  Issued  after  successful  experience: 

(a)  Upon  examination  as  for  Provisional  with  more 
rigid  tests  as  to  principles  and  practice  of  teaching. 

(b)  Exemption  from  re-examination  where  candidate 
has  made  satisfactory  record  in  previous  examination,  ex- 
cept in  professional  branches.  Exemption  also  where  candi- 
date presents  credentials  in  said  branches,  except  the  pro- 
fessional branches,  from  a college  of  recognized  standing. 

III.  State  certificate. 

(1)  Elementary  Provisional.  Issued, 

(a)  To  holders  of  State  Normal  diplomas,  or  diplomas 
of  equal  rank,  said  diplomas  to  be  awarded  upon  examina- 
tion held  at  the  seat  of  training  under  supervision  of  State 
Board  of  examiners. 

(b)  Valid  from  three  to  five  years. 

(c)  Not  renewable. 

(2)  Elementary  Professional.  Issued  after  successful 
experience: 

(a)  Upon  examination  as  determined  by  State  Board. 

(b)  To  holders  of  the  state  elementary  provisional 
without  examination  except  in  principles  and  practice  of 
teaching.  (These  examinations  could  be  taken  before  local 
boards,  manuscripts  forwarded  to  State  Board  for  valua- 
tion. 

(c)  To  candidates  for  local  elementary  professional, 


22 


whose  credentials  and  manuscripts  have  been  forwarded  to 
State  Board,  graded  and  approved  by  them. 

(d)  Without  limit  of  time. 

(2)  High  School  Provisional.  Issued, 

(a)  To  graduates  of  four  year  courses  in  recognized 
colleges  with  professional  training. 

(b)  Valid  from  three  to  five  years. 

(c)  Not  renewable. 

(4)  High  School  Professional.  Issued  after  successful 
experience : 

(a)  Upon  examination  as  determined  by  the  State 
Board. 

(b)  To  holders  of  high  school  provisional  certificates 
without  examination,  except  in  the  principles  and  practice 
of  teaching,  school  organization  and  administration  and 
school  law. 

(c)  To  candidates  for  the  local  high  school  professional 
certificate  whose  credentials  and  manuscripts  have  been  for- 
warded to  the  State  Board  of  Examiners  and  graded  and  ap- 
proved by  them. 

(5)  Special. 

I.  Provisional.  Issued, 

(a)  Upon  exanination  as  determined  by  State  Board. 

(b)  To  graduates  from  colleges  especially  equipped  to 
prepare  such  teachers. 

(c)  Valid  from  three  to  five  years. 

(d)  Not  renewable. 

II.  Professional.  Issued  after  successful  experience : 

(a)  Upon  examination  as  determined  by  State  Board. 

(b)  To  all  holders  of  provisional  who  pass  satisfactory 
examination  in  principles  and  practice  of  teaching,  hygiene, 
temperance  instruction,  etc. 


